Enhancement of semiconducting photovoltaic absorbers by the addition of alkali salts through solution coating techniques

ABSTRACT

In particular embodiments, a method is described for forming photovoltaic devices that includes providing a substrate suitable for use in a photovoltaic device, depositing a conductive contact layer over the substrate, depositing a salt solution over the surface of the conductive contact layer, the solution comprising a volatile solvent and an alkali metal salt solute, and depositing a semiconducting absorber layer over the solute residue left by the evaporated solvent.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit, under 35 U.S.C. §119(e), of U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 61/158,657, entitled Enhancement ofSemiconducting Photovoltaic Absorbers by the Addition of Alkali SaltsThrough Solution and Spray Coating Techniques, filed 9 Mar. 2009, andhereby incorporated by reference herein.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure generally relates to photovoltaic devices, andmore particularly to thin film semiconducting photovoltaic absorbers.

BACKGROUND

P-n junction based photovoltaic cells are commonly used as solar cells.Generally, p-n junction based photovoltaic cells include a layer of ann-type semiconductor in direct contact with a layer of a p-typesemiconductor. By way of background, when a p-type semiconductor ispositioned in intimate contact with an n-type semiconductor a diffusionof electrons occurs from the region of high electron concentration (then-type side of the junction) into the region of low electronconcentration (the p-type side of the junction). However, the diffusionof charge carriers (electrons) does not happen indefinitely, as anopposing electric field is created by this charge imbalance. Theelectric field established across the p-n junction induces a separationof charge carriers that are created as result of photon absorption.

Chalcogenide (both single and mixed) semiconductors have optical bandgaps well within the terrestrial solar spectrum, and hence, can be usedas photon absorbers in thin film based photovoltaic cells, such as solarcells, to generate electron-hole pairs and convert light energy tousable electrical energy. More specifically, semiconducting chalcogenidefilms are typically used as the absorber layers in such devices. Achalcogenide is a chemical compound consisting of at least one chalcogenion (group 16 (VIA) elements in the periodic table, e.g., sulfur (S),selenium (Se), and tellurium (Te)) and at least one more electropositiveelement. As those of skill in the art will appreciate, references tochalcogenides are generally made in reference to sulfides, selenides,and tellurides. Thin film based solar cell devices may utilize thesechalcogenide semiconductor materials as the absorber layer(s) as is or,alternately, in the form of an alloy with other elements or evencompounds such as oxides, nitrides and carbides, among others.

A number of electronic and structural effects have been attributed tothe presence of sodium (Na) in the fabrication ofCopper-Indium-disulfide (“CIS2”), Copper-Indium-diselenide (“CIS”),Copper-Indium-Gallium-diselenide (CuIn_(x)Ga_((1-x))Se₂, “CIGS”), andvarious chalcopyrite-based thin film photovoltaic devices. These resultshave been generated over the past two decades and a variety ofhypotheses have been proposed for the action of the Na. However, due tosubtle variations and contradictions in experimental observations, noneof these models has become universally accepted to date.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The present disclosure is illustrated by way of example, and not by wayof limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings and in whichlike reference numerals refer to similar elements and in which:

FIGS. 1A-1D each illustrates a diagrammatic cross-sectional side view ofan example solar cell configuration.

FIG. 2 illustrates a diagrammatic cross-sectional side view of aparticular example photovoltaic cell in accordance with an embodiment ofthe present disclosure.

FIG. 3 shows a process flow diagram illustrating an example process forfabricating photovoltaic cells having thin film absorber layers.

FIG. 4 illustrates a diagrammatic side view of an example sprayingsystem.

DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS

The present disclosure is now described in detail with reference to afew particular embodiments thereof as illustrated in the accompanyingdrawings. In the following description, numerous specific details areset forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the presentdisclosure. It is apparent, however, to one skilled in the art, thatparticular embodiments of the present disclosure may be practicedwithout some or all of these specific details. In other instances, wellknown process steps and/or structures have not been described in detailin order to not unnecessarily obscure the present disclosure. Inaddition, while the disclosure is described in conjunction with theparticular embodiments, it should be understood that this description isnot intended to limit the disclosure to the described embodiments. Tothe contrary, the description is intended to cover alternatives,modifications, and equivalents as may be included within the spirit andscope of the disclosure as defined by the appended claims.

Particular embodiments relate to absorber structures for use inphotovoltaic devices (hereinafter also referred to as “photovoltaiccells,” “solar cells,” or “solar devices”). Particular embodiments morespecifically relate to the use of alkali metal salts dissolved involatile solvents in concentrations less than or equal to approximately1 atomic % to enhance structural and electronic properties ofsemiconducting absorber layers for use in photovoltaic devices. Inparticular embodiments, the disclosed techniques may result inchalcogenide absorber layer structures in which a majority of thematerials forming the respective structures have chalcopyrite phase. Ineven more particular embodiments, greater than 90 percent of theresultant chalcogenide absorber layer structures are in the chalcopyritephase.

Copper indium gallium diselenide (e.g., Cu(In_(1-x)Ga_(x))Se₂), copperindium gallium selenide sulfide (e.g.,Cu(In_(1-x)Ga_(x))(Se_(1-y)S_(y))₂), and copper indium gallium disulfide(e.g., Cu(In_(1-x)Ga_(x))S₂), each of which is commonly referred to as a“CIGS” material or structure, Copper-Indium-disulfide, commonly referredto as a “CIS2” material or structure, Copper-Indium-diselenide, commonlyreferred to as a “CIS” material or structure, have been successfullyused in the fabrication of thin film absorbers in photovoltaic cellslargely due to their relatively large absorption coefficients. In fact,photovoltaic cells having photovoltaic efficiencies greater or equalthan approximately 20% have been manufactured using copper indiumgallium diselenide absorber layers.

Hereinafter, reference to a layer may encompass a film, and vice versa,where appropriate. Additionally, reference to a layer may encompass amultilayer structure including one or more layers, where appropriate. Assuch, reference to an absorber may be made with reference to one or moreabsorber layers that collectively are referred to hereinafter asabsorber, absorber layer, absorber structure, or absorber layerstructure. Additionally, as used herein, “or” may imply “and” as well as“or;” that is, “or” does not necessarily preclude “and,” unlessexplicitly stated or implicitly implied.

FIGS. 1A-1D illustrate various general example solar cell designs. FIG.1A illustrates an example solar cell 100 that includes, in overlyingsequence, a transparent glass substrate 102, a transparent conductive(contact) layer 104, a conversion layer 106, a transparent conductive(contact) layer 108, and a protective transparent layer 110. In thisexample solar cell design, light can enter the solar cell 100 from thetop (through the protective transparent layer 110) or from the bottom(through the transparent substrate 102). FIG. 1B illustrates anotherexample solar cell 120 that includes, in overlying sequence, anon-transparent substrate (e.g., a metal, plastic, ceramic, or othersuitable non-transparent substrate) 122, a conductive layer 124, aconversion layer 126, a transparent conductive layer 128, and aprotective transparent layer 130. In this example solar cell design,light can enter the solar cell 120 from the top (through the protectivetransparent layer 130). FIG. 1C illustrates another example solar cell140 that includes, in overlying sequence, a transparent substrate (e.g.,a glass, plastic, or other suitable transparent substrate) 142, aconductive layer 144, a conversion layer 146, a transparent conductivelayer 148, and a protective transparent layer 150. In this example solarcell design, light can enter the solar cell 140 from the top (throughprotective transparent layer 150). FIG. 1D illustrates yet anotherexample solar cell 160 that includes, in overlying sequence, atransparent substrate (e.g., a glass, plastic, or other suitabletransparent substrate) 162, a transparent conductive layer 164, aconversion layer 166, a conductive layer 168, and a protective layer170. In this example solar cell design, light can enter the solar cell160 from the bottom (through the transparent substrate 162).

In order to achieve charge separation (the separation of electron-holepairs) during operation of the resultant photovoltaic devices, each ofthe conversion layers 106, 126, 146, and 166 are comprised of at leastone n-type semiconductor material and at least one p-type semiconductormaterial. In particular embodiments, each of the conversion layers 106,126, 146, and 166 are comprised of at least one or more absorber layersand one or more buffer layers having opposite doping as the absorberlayers. By way of example, if the absorber layer is formed from a p-typesemiconductor, the buffer layer is formed from an n-type semiconductor.On the other hand, if the absorber layer is formed from an n-typesemiconductor, the buffer layer is formed from a p-type semiconductor.More particular embodiments of example conversion layers suitable foruse as one or more of conversion layers 106, 126, 146, or 166 will bedescribed later in the present disclosure.

In particular embodiments, each of the transparent conductive (contact)layers 104, 108, 128, 148, or 164 is comprised of at least one oxidelayer. By way of example and not by way of limitation, the oxide layerforming the transparent conductive layer may include one or more layerseach formed of one or more of: titanium oxide (e.g., one or more of TiO,TiO2, Ti2O3, or Ti3O5), aluminum oxide (e.g., Al2O3), cobalt oxide(e.g., one or more of CoO, Co2O3, or Co3O4), silicon oxide (e.g., SiO2),tin oxide (e.g., one or more of SnO or SnO2), zinc oxide (e.g., ZnO),molybdenum oxide (e.g., one or more of Mo, MoO2, or MoO3), tantalumoxide (e.g., one or more of TaO, TaO2, or Ta2O5), tungsten oxide (e.g.,one or more of WO2 or WO3), indium oxide (e.g., one or more of InO orIn2O3), magnesium oxide (e.g., MgO), bismuth oxide (e.g., Bi2O3), copperoxide (e.g., CuO), vanadium oxide (e.g., one or more of VO, VO2, V2O3,V2O5, or V3O5), chromium oxide (e.g., one or more of CrO2, CrO3, Cr2O3,or Cr3O4), zirconium oxide (e.g., ZrO2), or yttrium oxide (e.g., Y2O3).Additionally, in various embodiments, the oxide layer may be doped withone or more of a variety of suitable elements or compounds. In oneparticular embodiment, each of the transparent conductive layers 104,108, 128, 148, or 164 may be comprised of ZnO doped with at least oneof: aluminum oxide, titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, vanadium oxide, ortin oxide. In another particular embodiment, each of the transparentconductive layers 104, 108, 128, 148, or 164 may be comprised of indiumoxide doped with at least one of: aluminum oxide, titanium oxide,zirconium oxide, vanadium oxide, or tin oxide. In another particularembodiment, each of the transparent conductive layers 104, 108, 128,148, or 164 may be a multi-layer structure comprised of at least a firstlayer formed from at least one of: zinc oxide, aluminum oxide, titaniumoxide, zirconium oxide, vanadium oxide, or tin oxide; and a second layercomprised of zinc oxide doped with at least one of: aluminum oxide,titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, vanadium oxide, or tin oxide. Inanother particular embodiment, each of the transparent conductive layers104, 108, 128, 148, or 164 may be a multi-layer structure comprised ofat least a first layer formed from at least one of: zinc oxide, aluminumoxide, titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, vanadium oxide, or tin oxide;and a second layer comprised of indium oxide doped with at least one of:aluminum oxide, titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, vanadium oxide, or tinoxide.

In particular embodiments, each of the conductive (contact) layers 124,144, or 168 is comprised of at least one metal or metallic layer. By wayof example and not by way of limitation, each of conductive layers 124,144, or 168 may be formed of one or more layers each individually orcollectively containing at least one of: aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti),vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co),nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zirconium (Zr), niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo),ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd), platinum (Pt), silver(Ag), hafnium (Hf), tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W), rhenium (Re), iridium(Ir), or gold (Au). In one particular embodiment, each of conductivelayers 124, 144, or 168 may be formed of one or more layers eachindividually or collectively containing at least one of: Al, Ti, V, Cr,Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Pt, Ag, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir,or Au; and at least one of: boron (B), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), lithium(Li), sodium (Na), silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), cesium(Cs), rubidium (Rb), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), mercury(Hg), lead (Pb), bismuth (Bi), tin (Sn), antimony (Sb), or germanium(Ge). In another particular embodiment, each of conductive layers 124,144, or 168 may be formed of a Mo-based layer that contains Mo and atleast one of: B, C, N, Na, Al, Si, P, S, K, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni,Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, Se, Rb, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cs, Hf, Ta, W, Re,Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Pb, or Bi. In another particular embodiment, each ofconductive layers 124, 144, or 168 may be formed of a multi-layerstructure comprised of an amorphous layer, a face-centered cubic (fcc)or hexagonal close-packed (hcp) interlayer, and a Mo-based layer. Insuch an embodiment, the amorphous layer may be comprised of at least oneof: CrTi, CoTa, CrTa, CoW, or glass; the fcc or hcp interlayer may becomprised of at least one of: Al, Ni, Cu, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Ir, Pt, Au, orPb; and the Mo-based layer may be comprised of at least one of Mo and atleast one of: B, C, N, Na, Al, Si, P, S, K, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni,Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, Se, Rb, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cs, Hf, Ta, W, Re,Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Pb, or Bi.

Primary enhancements in the fabrication of CIS2, CIS, CIGS, and variouschalcopyrite-based thin film photovoltaic (PV) devices attributed tosodium (Na) may be both electronic and structural. By way of example,electronic enhancements may include an increase of net carrierconcentration and film transverse (in-plane) conductivity, as well asimproved conversion efficiencies of the resultant photovoltaic devices.Structural enhancements (that may or may not contribute to all theobserved electronic improvements) may include increased grain size andimproved film texture. However, results from various research groupssuggest that these structural effects are not simply influenced by thepresence of Na, but also by the specific processing conditions, so thatthe effects of Na can be complicated and obscured by a multitude offactors. There are some who postulate that the presence of Na in turnattracts oxygen (O) and this results in performance improvements throughdefect healing and vacancy passivation.

A variety of methods have been adopted to facilitate Na incorporationinto photovoltaic devices, and particularly, into the absorber layers ofthese devices. In one simple conventional method, a somewhatuncontrolled source of the Na is within the soda lime glass substratethat is used during the fabrication of the device. It is thought by manythat under high temperature processing conditions, Na from the substratediffuses through a Molybdenum bottom contact into the absorber layer andinfluences the characteristics of the absorber layer.

Another conventional method is to deposit a thin layer of (typically)sodium-flouride (NaF) onto the surface of the Molybdenum bottom contactby resistive heating or evaporation. This method of Na incorporation iscommonly used in scenarios where non-Na containing substrates are used(for example, Stainless Steel or Kapton).

Finally, some researchers have introduced Na after the absorber layerfilm growth process by evaporating NaF onto the surface of the absorberlayer and then subjecting it to various annealing treatments tofacilitate Na diffusion. It has been found that this post-processingwith Na is less effective than when Na is present during the actualabsorber layer film growth process since it does not impact the finalfilm morphology and any enhancements are purely electronic ones.However, there have been improvements in device performance due to thisNa incorporation, particularly for films grown at lower temperatures.

In general, for CIS2 films, it is thought by many that the presence ofNa is of little or no significance in copper (Cu) rich absorber layercompositions whereas it is of critical importance for Indium (In) richabsorber layer films. For CIGS films, on the other hand, the presence ofNa is generally viewed as vital for high performance across a broadcompositional and processing spectrum.

It has been postulated that due to its low solubility in the bulkphases, Na resides at grain boundaries in the deposited absorber layerfilms, and as such, passivates them as well as surfaces. It has alsobeen suggested that the presence of Na induces the diffusion of Oxygen(O) into the film resulting in the subsequent passivation of sulfur (S)vacancies. Other researchers have suggested that the Na forms fluxes(molten salts) that reside on the outside of growing grains and assistin large grain growth.

To date, the most common alkali metal salts that have been proposed forenhancing CIS/CIGS type absorbers are NaF, Na₂O₂ and Na₂O. Aconventional method of introducing these alkali salts during theabsorber layer growth process is to deposit between 0 and 15 nanometers(nm) of these alkali metal salts by vacuum evaporation onto the surfaceof the bottom (e.g., molybdenum) conductive layer.

Particular embodiments of the present disclosure relate to the use ofalkali metal salts dissolved in volatile solvents in concentrations lessthan or equal to approximately 1 atomic percent (at %) to enhancestructural and electronic properties of semiconducting absorber layersfor use in photovoltaic devices. The present inventors have determinedthat relatively dilute solutions may generally result in more uniform,continuous coatings.

FIG. 2 illustrates a diagrammatic cross-sectional side view of a moreparticular example photovoltaic cell 200 in accordance with a particularembodiment of the present disclosure. The fabrication of photovoltaiccell 200 will be described with reference to FIG. 3, which shows aprocess flow diagram illustrating an example process 300 for fabricatingphotovoltaic cells having thin film absorber layers. In particularembodiments, the process begins at 302 with the washing of the substrate202. By way of example, as described above, the substrate 202 may be aglass substrate, and in particular embodiments, a soda lime float glasssubstrate, and may be washed with deionized water. Although suitablethicknesses may vary, in some embodiments the thickness of the substrate202 is in the range of approximately 0.7-2.3 millimeters (mm). At 304,the bottom contact layer 204 is deposited. In a particular embodiment,the bottom contact 204 is formed from Molybdenum (Mo) and may bedeposited by any suitable means such as, by way of example, sputteringor evaporation, among other suitable techniques.

At 306, an alkali metal salt layer 206 is deposited in the form of aliquid solution on the surface of the bottom contact 204. By way ofexample, the alkali metal salt layer may comprise one or more alkalimetals such as, by way of example and not necessarily by way oflimitation, lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), orcaesium (Cs). The cation(s) for the salt layer 206 is chosen such thatit provides a complementary enhancement to the absorber layer 208. Byway of example, suitable cations include, by way of example and notnecessarily by way of limitation, fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine(Br), iodine (I), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and oxygen(O). In particular embodiments, one or more of the alkali metal saltcompound solutions are deposited individually or in combination on thesurface of the bottom contact 104 prior to the deposition of theabsorber layer 208.

In particular embodiments, prior to deposition over the bottom contactlayer 204, the alkali metal salt(s) used to form the salt layer 306 arefirst dissolved in a suitable volatile solvent such as, by way ofexample, acetone, ethanol, methanol, or other alcohols or suitablevolatile solvents (even water), and subsequently applied onto thesurface of the contact layer 204 by spraying, dipping, spin coatingand/or other suitable solution coating techniques. By way of example, inone embodiment, an NaI salt is used to form the salt layer 206. NaI ismoderately soluble in Acetone and can be readily deposited uniformlyusing a spray nozzle. In a preferred embodiment the alkali metal saltsolution is sprayed onto the surface of the contact layer 204 using aspray nozzle such that the solution is applied to the surface of thecontact layer in the form of a fine mist (i.e., the solution dropletsare very small). FIG. 4 illustrates a diagrammatic side view of aspraying system 400 including a nozzle 402, heat source 404, and rollerplatform 406 (to transfer cell 200 during the process). The distancebetween the nozzle 402 and surface of the cell 200 may be optimizedbased on the size (e.g., length and width) of the cell.

In particular embodiments, the alkali salt solution concentration anddosage is chosen so as to provide a deposited salt layer 208 with athickness greater than 0 nanometers (nm) but less than approximately 25nm. By way of reference, 12 nm is a typical thickness for NaI. Inparticular embodiments, it is advantageous to use a dilute solution(e.g., less than or equal to approximately 1 atomic % in some particularembodiments) deposited in a sufficient quantity (to cover the entiresurface of the bottom contact layer 204 uniformly) and in a fine mist(e.g., using a fine nozzle) to facilitate uniform coverage across thesurface of the bottom contact layer 204. In this manner, a uniform saltlayer 206 may be deposited onto the surface of the bottom contact layer204. More particularly, since a volatile solvent is preferably used,upon contact with the surface of the bottom contact layer 204, thesolvent preferably evaporates very rapidly thereby depositing the saltwithin the solution droplets onto the surface approximately where thesolution droplets contact the surface of the contact layer. By way ofexample, in particular embodiments, it may be desirable for the solventto evaporate in less than 10 seconds or even less than 1 second, and, insome embodiments, almost instantaneously thereby leaving little or notime for surface tension to induce droplet aggregation, which mayprevent uniform coverage. Furthermore, in a particular embodiment, thesubstrate 202 may be heated during the salt layer deposition process tospeed up drying, prevent surface tension induced droplet aggregation,and thereby improve uniformity of the resultant salt layer 206. In fact,heating the substrate 202 may facilitate the use of water as a solventcandidate.

It should also be noted that relatively larger (in terms of surfacearea, and even much larger, photovoltaic cells and complete modules maybe formed with embodiments of the present disclosure. More particularly,by spraying a dilute alkali salt solution over the bottom contact layer,a much larger (in terms of surface area) cell (or panel) may be formedwhile maintaining uniform coverage, as compared to conventional methods.

At 308, the absorber layer 208 is deposited. By way of example, in aparticular embodiment the absorber layer 208 may be formed from a p-typeCIS, CIS2, or CIGS semiconducting material. The absorber layer 208 maybe deposited using any suitable means (e.g., sputtering). Althoughsuitable thicknesses may vary, in some particular embodiments, thethickness of the absorber layer 208 is in the range of 1.5-3 microns(μm).

In some particular embodiments, following deposition of the absorberlayer 208, the substrate 202, bottom contact layer 204, and absorberlayer 208 may be annealed at 310 and subsequently cooled. Annealing mayfacilitate further migration of the alkali metal(s) from the salt layer206 into the absorber layer 208. At 312 a buffer (or window) layer 210may be deposited over the absorber layer 208. By way of example, thebuffer layer 210 may be formed of an n-type semiconducting material (orgenerally a semiconducting material of opposite doping as the absorberlayer 206) such as, by way of example, In₂S₃, ZnS, CdS, among others anddeposited with a thickness in the range of approximately, by way ofexample, 30-70 nm using any suitable deposition means. At 314, the topcontact layer 214 is then deposited over the buffer layer 210. By way ofexample, the top contact layer 214 may be formed of AZO at, by way ofexample, 1-3 μm using any suitable deposition means. In someembodiments, an insulating layer 212 may be deposited over the bufferlayer 210 prior to deposition of the top contact layer 214. By way ofexample, the insulating layer 212 may be formed of an i-type materialsuch as ZnO at a thickness in the range of approximately, by way ofexample, 100 nm.

Subsequently, various conventional processes such as edge isolation at316, deposition of grids and/or busbars 216 at 318, deposition of ananti-reflective coating at 320, or light soaking at 322 may then followprior to pre-testing and sorting at 324 and packaging and shipping.

In alternate embodiments, the alkali salt layer 206 may be depositedonto the top surface of the absorber layer 208 rather than, or inaddition to, on the bottom contact layer 204, and incorporated into itby appropriate heat treatment (e.g., annealing). By way of example, asuitable heat treatment may include heating at approximately 200 degreesCelsius (° C.) for between approximately 5 minutes and 1 hour dependingon the specific absorber configuration. However, the present inventorshave determined that depositing the salt layer 206 prior to depositionof the absorber layer 208 aids in migration of the alkali metals intothe absorber layer 208 as the alkali metals are more readily able tomigrate during formation or crystallization of the absorber layer 208 asopposed to afterwards, when the absorber layer has already crystallized.

The present disclosure encompasses all changes, substitutions,variations, alterations, and modifications to the example embodimentsdescribed herein that a person having ordinary skill in the art wouldcomprehend. Similarly, where appropriate, the appended claims encompassall changes, substitutions, variations, alterations, and modificationsto the example embodiments described herein that a person havingordinary skill in the art would comprehend.

What is claimed is:
 1. An intermediate structure for use in aphotovoltaic cell comprising: a substrate; a conductive contact layerdeposited over the substrate; and an alkali metal salt layer depositedover the conductive contact layer.
 2. The structure of claim 1, furthercomprising a semiconducting absorber layer deposited over andimmediately adjacent the alkali metal salt layer.
 3. The structure ofclaim 2, further comprising a second alkali metal salt layer over andimmediately adjacent the absorber layer.
 4. The structure of claim 1,wherein the alkali metal salt solute is comprised of: one or more alkalimetals including one or more of lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium(K), rubidium (Rb), and caesium (Cs); and one or more cations includingone or more of fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I),sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and oxygen (O).
 5. Thestructure of claim 1, wherein the absorber layer is comprised of one ormore layers each comprised of one or more of copper indium galliumdiselenide, copper indium gallium selenide sulfide, and copper indiumgallium disulfide, copper-indium-disulfide, or copper-indium-diselenide.